Frankenstein and Science

Chapter 1 Introduction Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall When Evelyn Fox Keller wrote that ‘Frankenstein is a story first and foremost about the consequences of male ambitions to co-opt the procreative function’, she took for granted an interpretive consensus amongst late twentieth-century critical approaches to the novel. Whilst the themes had been revealed as ‘considerably more complex than we had earlier thought’, Fox Keller concludes ‘the major point remains quite simple’. The consensus might be characterised a little more broadly than this – as a view that the novel is about masculinity and scientific hubris – and has led to an enduring use of the title as a byword for the dangerous potential of the scientific over-reacher: It was in this vein that Isaac Asimov coined the term ‘the Frankenstein complex’ to describe the theme of his robot stories in the 1940s, and The Frankenstein Syndrome is the title for a colle ction of essays on genetic engineering published in 1995. This collection takes a very different approach to the novel, seeking to reopen the question of how science and scientific ambition are portrayed in the story by offering a range of historical perspectives, based on detailed accounts of areas of scientific knowledge that are relevant to it. Frankenstein was published in 1818, in a cultural and political climate fraught with contrary ideals. The editors of this collection take it for granted that a successful work of literature is always overdetermined and that it is neither possible nor desirable to formulate a precise and conclusive interpretation of any work of fiction. The wealth of debates and controversies that were going on at the time when Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein make it an urgent task to provide a space in which these discourses can be heard once again. If we listen carefully for the contextual arguments into which the assessment of the benefits and dangers of a new discovery were embedded, we may have to relinquish the assumption (implicit in Fox Keller’s statement and explicit in the majority of late twentieth-century interpretations) that this is a novel with an anti-Promethean message. In doing so, we can gain a more complex understanding of the cross-fertilisations between radical politics and the dramas of scientific exploration. Of course, not every scientist subscribed to radical politics. But considering that most scientists investigating completely new areas of interest had very little sense of where their discoveries would lead them, questions about their consequences were uppermost in people’s minds. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, utopian thinking about the vast social benefits made possible by scientific innovation was a powerful force for good. Advances in 2 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall anatomy, chemistry, electricity, engineering and the exploration sciences were saving lives and creating vast new economic possibilities, besides giving rise to some of the darker forms of human exploitation associated with the industrial revolution. An intelligent appraisal of these consequences required the kind of analytical vision that strikes us in Frankenstein. The end of the eighteenth century is a turning point often called a ‘second scientific revolution’, which Patricia Fara sees as characterized by new levels of confidence in the commercial and social impact of scientific research. 3 One of the definitive influences on this cultural change was Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802). Darwin was a figure larger than life: a pragmatist and idealist, a prolific writer of exuberant verse, a polymathic inventor and a medical practitioner with an uninhibited brief to experiment on his patients. As co-founder and ‘recruiting sergeant’ for the Lunar Society from the 1760s, he presided over the most formidable powerhouse of scientific talent in eighteenth-century England. 4 Members included Josiah Wedgewood (1730–95), Mathew Boulton (1728–1809), Joseph Priestley (1733– 1804) and James Watt (1736–1819). They made breakthrough discoveries in steam power, chemical manufacture, optics, geology and electricity. 5 The driving enthusiasms for their world came from the prospect of its immediate application in industry and commerce. If steam power was the most profitable field of research in terms of its immediate industrial impact, electricity was revolutionary in a more comprehensive and spectacular way. It was electricity that epitomized the Promethean spirit of the age and the American statesman and inventor Benjamin Franklin (1706–90) who ‘snatched the lightning from the heavens and the scepter from tyrants’, and came to symbolize all that was most inspiring about it. In a now famous letter written in 1787 and addressed simply to ‘Doctor Franklin, America’, Erasmus Darwin addressed him as ‘the greatest Statesman of the present, or perhaps of any century, who spread the happy contagion of Liberty among his countrymen; and †¦ delivered them from the house of bondage, and the scourge of oppression’. 6 The declamatory verve of this new scientific rhetoric inspired future generations. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin (1756–1836), admired Erasmus Darwin and shared his ideals. Her mother Mary Wollstonecraft (1759– 97), an incisive social analyst with a passion for the advancement of knowledge, developed her own style of Promethean statement in praising the revolutionary quest for a new order of intellectual life: But the irresistible energy of moral and political sentiments of half a century, at last kindled into a glaze the illuminating rays of truth, which, throwing new light on the mental powers of man, and giving fresh spring to his reasoning faculties, completely 7 undermined the strong holds of priestcraft and hypocrisy. Introduction 3 Darwin’s verses were a strong influence on the early writings of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), but the Shelleys and their circle were of a new generation who had to come to terms with the more horrific legacies of revolution in France, and with the reign of virulent backlash politics in England. The backlash began violently, with the gathering of ‘Church and King’ mobs who targeted those associated with all forms of new knowledge and ideas. Joseph Priestley was the subject of a campaign of public vilification, which culminated in the trashing of his laboratory in July 1791, on the second anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The intellectual climate in 1818, when Frankenstein was published, was fraught with political agendas and Mary Shelley’s place in it needs to be understood in relation to the allegiance of ideals and principles that bound her to her parents (to whom the novel is dedicated) and to a peer group in which the charismatic influence of Shelley and Byron were paramount. A reading of the novel as simply anti-Promethean, which has been fashionable through most of the twentieth century and especially through the influence of some feminist critics in the 1980s and 90s, fails to take account of the implications of anti-Promethean views for someone in Mary Shelley’s cultural circumstances, and of many of her own overt pronouncements. To a feminist in Wollstonecraft’s era, the idea that bold discovery and the quest for enhanced human power was against the interests of women would have been anathema. In the Romantic period, Prometheus was the hero of all those who sought liberation from oppression. In many respects, Frankenstein criticizes an attitude towards knowledge that came to be identified with the Enlightenment. Subsequent views have either eulogized its grand achievements or condemned its megalomaniac aspirations. Neither of these approaches has shed light on the broad palette of different approaches to the study of nature. In order to understand the full complexity of the period we, therefore, need to distance ourselves from a simplistic retrospective view that the Enlightenment was a period with a homogenous agenda about technological progress and the advancement of knowledge. The eighteenth century was no doubt dominated by monolithic movements that revised and modernised philosophical theories at the same time as planting the seed for the shared values of a democratic and prosperous society liberated from the shackles of superstition. Scholars like Ian Hunter have convincingly argued for the existence of multiple Enlightenments, whose agendas emerged from strongly conflicting ideas about the nature and purpose of human existence as individuals and members of society. The secularising influences of the age of Enlightenment tend to be upheld as key achievements. Although it is fair to say that the period radically curbed the Church’s direct influence on civic matters, the secularisation of public administration was unable to undermine the Christian foundation of European society. It is true that some members of the Enlightened intelligentsia embraced atheistic principles, but this was by no means a general development. So, it is 4 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall ossible to subdivide the multiple Enlightenments into the category of the empirical rationalists, on the one hand, and those who explore arcane and occult matters, on the other. Here it has to be noted that it is a response to the weakening of the power of the Church that lay investigators could encroach on its traditional prerogatives when they examined aspects of psyche, mind and consciousness and, by doing so, rejected the idea that those parts of the human being which were traditionally described by the term ‘soul’ should be excluded from empirical, physiological analysis. Importantly, though, science bridges the divide between sober empiricism and attempts to subject metaphysical issues to the scrutinising eyes of logical analysis. The hybrids between rationality and metaphysical speculation, called into existence by the crossovers between these two types of science, are a fertile backdrop to Victor Frankenstein’s introduction to the world of science. The locations of Frankenstein have been chosen with utmost care. Victor’s birthplace in Geneva positions him in the stronghold of Calvinism. At the same time, it alludes to the fact that Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) returned to this small republic on Lake Geneva as a refuge from the vices of France. Another significant setting for the formation of Victor’s mind is Ingolstadt, a Bavarian town with a recently founded university (1759) that adopted progressive principles and aimed to achieve social reform. Ingolstadt became famous throughout Europe in the early 1780s for a particular brand of Enlightenment: the order of the Illuminati who describe themselves simply by the Latin word for Enlightenment. It is true that Frankenstein does not contain any direct references to the Illuminism, or its founder Adam Weishaupt (1748–1811), but it is telling that the dates of Walton’s letters to his sister, ‘17—’, refer its action back to an anonymous time of the eighteenth century. It therefore seems to be fair to conclude that the pursuit of superhuman objectives must be located in the decade before the French Revolution, when all of Europe was intoxicated with a heady ferment of reformatory ideas and utopian visions. Weishaupt had been educated as a Jesuit but rejected this rigid form of Catholicism and became the first layman to be appointed for the chair of canon law at the University of Ingolstadt (1773). The contribution to the intellectual life of his university, though, was not sufficient for him. Sharing Victor Frankenstein’s immense craving to better the lot of mankind, he embarked on negotiations with the Freemasons. His unyielding temper rendered such a rapprochement difficult, so that he founded a new secret society, which was, however, modelled on this society. The joint efforts between Weishaupt and Adolf von Knigge (1752–96) guaranteed the enormous success of the new society between 1780 and 1782. Disagreement between the two leaders, along with public scandals and denunciations that the society was aiming for political sedition rather than the advancement of human welfare and scientific knowledge, caused serious suspicions. In 1787, the Bavarian government went so far as to forbid it under penalty of death. Introduction 5 The stated goals of the society of the Illuminati were to improve society through the cultivation of sensibility and the practice of scientific research. These objectives were shared by most contemporary intellectuals and it, therefore, attracted the leading lights of German intelligentsia, including Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832), Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803) and Friedrich Nicolai (1733–1811). They joined as a means of dedicating themselves to an organised study and cultivation of human nature. The initiatory oath of new members of the order revolves around humanitarian principles: ‘I profess, and also pledge, that I will eagerly grasp every opportunity of serving humankind, will improve my knowledge and willpower, and will make generally available my useful recognitions, in so far as the welfare and statutes of this particular society will demand it of me. ’10 While pursuing similar goals as the philosophes, a group of French intellectuals dedicated themselves to the compilation of comprehensive information about the arts and the sciences to be collected in the one reference work of the Encyclopedie (1751–72). 1 The group of intellectuals around Denis Diderot (1713–84) and Jean D’Alembert (1717–83) aimed to spread knowledge as a means of breaking down privileges and abuses by church and nobility, which is why they advocated a strictly empiricist approach to science. While Weishaupt admired these spokespeople for reason and rationali ty, his own society embedded the practice of rationality and benevolence in an atmosphere of ritual. He also combined his commitment to pioneering scientific exploration with the exploration of the more esoteric borderlines between material and non-material phenomena. The emotional dimension to his practice of reason and rationality, for instance, consisted of the adoption of classical names for all members of the society. Weishaupt called himself Spartacus and Knigge was Philo. Weishaupt’s taste for secrecy led him to refer even to places by pseudonyms, ‘Athens’, for instance, standing for Munich and ‘Thessalonica’ for Mannheim. The veil of mystery also provided a cover for some serious agitations for the ‘elaboration and propagation of a new popular religion and †¦ the gradual establishment of a universal democratic republic’. 12 It was also a fertile environment for the observation of phenomena of psyche and soul. Although Weishaupt and Knigge are not directly recognisable in Shelley’s imaginary depiction of Ingolstadt, there are some revealing links between the heyday of Illuminism and the novel’s scientific culture. A striking coincidence is that the jubilant vision of scientific progress expressed by Professors Krempe and Waldheim positions them in the decade of the 1780s, which was also the time when Antoine de Lavoisier (1743–94) ousted the long-established belief that combustion was a process that released phlogiston – a colourless, tasteless and weightless substance believed to be present in every object as a latent principle waiting to be released. Lavoisier demonstrated the inconsistencies of the phlogiston theory in 1783 and published his own theories in 1789, demonstrating that conservation of mass is a fundamental principle not just in mechanical physics but also in chemistry. Lavoisier, importantly, proved the viability of quantitative 6 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall approaches to chemical processes, including respiration and other vital processes of the human body. 13 In Frankenstein the clash between the old and the new theories is pitched as a contrast between the ‘modern masters’ and ld alchemists. 14 After Krempe’s scornful response to Victor’s interest in their ‘exploded systems’ (29), the benevolent Waldman explains that ‘these were men to whose indefatigable zeal modern philosophers were indebted for most of the foundations of knowledge’ (31). The key figures in the alchemical tradition mentioned in the novel – Albertus Magnus (c. 1206–80), Cor nelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486–1535), and Paracelsus (Theophrastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) – do not simply feature as scholars who made groundbreaking contributions to the history of science. Once he has lost his fascination for the old alchemists, Victor Frankenstein rationalises his attraction to their ideas as a craving for ‘boundless grandeur’ (30). Prior to studying at Ingolstadt, he describes his early quests for the ‘philosopher’s stone and the elixir of life’, and goes on to flesh out the moment of success: ‘what glory would attend the discovery, if I could banish disease from the human frame, and render man invulnerable to any but a violent death’ (23). If he has really studied the writings of these authors, he must have a more complex understanding of the symbolic qualities of key alchemical concepts, like the philosopher’s stone. The text of the novel is quiet about whether he ever pondered the capacity of this most cherished of substances to enable a mystic union between self and world. We can, therefore, only speculate if he was initially attracted to the authors of alchemical works because they embraced a holistic view of nature, which foregrounded strong resemblances between physical and metaphysical phenomena. It should also be noted that many scholars who broadly belong in the alchemical tradition explored the borderlines between mind and matter. Striking investigations of topics as diverse as social deviance, the origin of the Devil, the true skills of magicians, black and white magic, witchcraft, and the power of poisons and remedies are collected in the work of Johann Weyer, Agrippa’s most prominent disciple. 5 If stripped of its religious-demonic framework, Weyer’s insight into the psychology of delusions, obsessions, sexual deviance, as well as a whole range of ailments that would come to be classified as nervous diseases during the Romantic period, is truly remarkable. It, therefore, is no surprise that Romantic writers had a certain penchant for the works of the old alchemists. Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin, himself embarked on a book-length study entitled Lives of the Necromancers (1834),16 in which he assessed their true achievements in a strictly sec ular light. As a stolid rationalist, Godwin must have wanted to cool his period’s enthusiasm for what he would have described as irrational obfuscation. Interest in the principles of life – the nervous system, the psyche and the soul – however, provides a connection between Weishaupt’s Illuminati, the ‘modern masters’ and the old alchemists. But as is illustrated by the fact that Weishaupt fell into general disgrace while Lavoisier came to be hailed as the founder of modern chemistry, the line between respectable pursuits and politically and otherwise Introduction 7 suspect explorations of the non-material aspects of human existence was easily crossed. 17 Nowhere was this boundary more richly confused than in the dramas of intellectual adventure conceived by Coleridge, Goethe, Shelley, Byron and other leading poets of the Romantic movement, in whose imaginative company Mary Shelley’s story was conceived. * There were strong elements of the uncanny about many of the scientific experiments that caught the public imagination during the first two decades of the nineteenth century. The legacy of Luigi Galvani (1737–98) was continued through the work of his nephew Giovanni Aldini (1762–1834), who in 1803 experimented on the corpse of a criminal recently executed at Newgate, to macabre effect. Electrical charges caused one eye to open, the legs to jolt and the hand to raise itself as if in greeting. In the same year, Aldini published a series of descriptions of his experiments, including some work on severed heads: The first of these decapitated criminals being conveyed to the apartment provided for my experiments, in the neighborhood of the place of execution, the head was first subjected to the Galvanic action. For this purpose I had constructed a pile consisting of a hundred pieces of silver and zinc. Having moistened the inside of the ears with salt water, I formed an arc with two metallic wires, which, proceeding from the two ears, were applied, one to the summit and the other to the bottom of the pile. When this communication was established, I observed strong contractions in the muscles of the face, which were contorted in so irregular a manner that they exhibited the appearance of the most horrid grimaces. The action of the eye-lids was exceedingly striking, 18 though less sensible in the human head than in that of an ox. But for the precision of its laboratory detail, this reads not unlike a scene from Mary Shelley’s novel. At the other end of the vitalist spectrum from the prospect of reanimation was that of spontaneous generation. In the same year as Aldini was engaging in his grisly, jaw-dropping work at the gallows, Erasmus Darwin’s imaginings were all light and life: And quick contraction with ethereal flame Lights into life the fibre-woven frame – Hence without parent by spontaneous birth Rise the first specks of animated earth. 19 The most notorious experiments in spontaneous generation were those conducted by Andrew Crosse (1784–1855) at his house in the Quantock hills in 1836, long after the publication of Frankenstein, but a diary entry by Mary Shelley indicates that she and Percy Bysshe Shelley attended one of Crosse’s early lectures in London on December 28, 1814. Crosse spoke and gave demonstrations on the topic 8 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall of ‘electricity and the elements’, describing in detail his methods of directing lightning currents in order to employ their power to generate light and motion. 0 The early nineteenth century was a time when the magic and mystique of science was crossing paths with an accelerating succession of immediately useful discoveries, and it was impossible to determine which of a range of mind-boggling prospects might become an actuality. The industrial revolution was in its most intensive phase. Human mobility was accelerated beyond all prev ious imagining, and concepts of geographic distance were correspondingly transformed. Richard Trevithick (1771–1833) built the first passenger steam carriage in 1801 and his steam locomotives were revolutionizing freight transport from 1804. In 1807 the first steamship passenger service to America was introduced. In 1816 the Leeds-Liverpool canal was completed. Work and productivity were likewise accelerated, with doubleedged consequences, as the bulk of manufactured goods grew exponentially, but so did the burden on those whose lot it was to operate the ‘dark satanic mills’. 1 A succession of riots and a growing movement of organized protest were features of this timespan, leading up to the Peterloo massacre in Manchester in early 1819. William Wordsworth, reflecting in 1814 on the transformations he was witnessing, tried to express both sides of the account: I grieve, when on the darker side Of this great change I look; and there behold Such outrage done to nature as compels The indignant power to justify herself; Yea, to avenge her violated righ ts, For England’s bane. And et I do exult, Casting reserve away, exult to see An intellectual mastery exercised O’er the blind elements; a purpose given, A perseverance fed; almost a soul Imparted – to brute matter. I rejoice, Measuring the force of those gigantic powers That, by the thinking mind, have been compelled To serve the will of feeble-bodied man. 22 Mary Shelley was part of the Romantic movement, socially and intellectually, and her view of science was accordingly influenced by the heightened perspectives of her contemporaries. Her protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, is a figure torn between the two kinds of vision expressed here by Wordsworth, and there are no easy conclusions to be reached about the inherent values and dangers of his enterprise. * Introduction 9 The main objective of this collection of essays is to bring to life the challenges and complexities of science as they are reflected in the novel. We have, therefore, brought together contributors who can offer readings of Frankenstein in light of the most relevant areas of the period’s scientific knowledge. Rather than focussing exclusively on the individual fields of enquiry which were to establish themselves as the core disciplines of modern science, this book is based on a broader understanding of science. On the one hand, it reminds the modern reader of the controversial aura of, for example, early studies in electricity, and on the other hand, offers a glimpse of the fluid boundaries between pioneering explorations of nervous diseases and esoteric speculations about the existence of analogical resemblances between mind and matter. The scientific advances of the Romantic period could not have been as farreaching and rapid without related efforts to disseminate the new knowledge amongst a wide spectrum of interested parties. Women and children, in particular, became a crucial target audience for the numerous publishers attempting to profit from the ever-rising interest in inventions and new insight into the secret workings of nature. Publications about the people, animals, plants and landscapes encountered by naval expeditions were a similarly popular topic of interest. Owing to William Godwin’s own involvement in the market of scientific popularisation, Mary Shelley learnt about her period’s technological advancements and scientific theories from her earliest years. Much of the knowledge she acquired as an avid young reader with an early penchant for writing was filtered through to her via scientific popularisations and textual hybrids between fact and fiction. Patricia Fara opens this collection of essays with an overview of scientific publications written for a lay audience and available during Mary Shelley’s formative childhood years. Considering that early nineteenth-century women could still only really enter the history of science as readers, illustrators and translators, Ludvig Holberg’s novel about Niels Klim’s journey through a subterranean world (1742) encouraged its female readers to feel at home in the spaces between fact and fiction. Holberg’s novel, along with Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1725), which demonstrated a similar preoccupation with contemporary science, is a revealing early fantasy about the imaginary exploration of alien spaces, mingled with an analysis of double standards and the social objectives behind scientific ventures. Eighteenth-century novels about scientific innovation are, therefore, shown to provide an important foil for Mary Shelley’s imaginative portrayal of a scientific hypothesis. The next chapter, written by Judith Barbour, offers detailed insight into the precise nature of the knowledge disseminated hrough the Juvenile Library? a serialised encyclopaedia published by William Godwin after 1807. Not surprisingly, the household of a writer, publisher and bookseller teemed with intellectual debates about the rationale and implications of new systems of scientific categorisation. Such discussions enthusiastically explored the Linnean order of plants al ong with other attempts to revise the long-established ‘great chain of being’, a rigid hierarchy that assigned a place to all living beings and embraced beings as diverse as mites and slugs, on the one hand, and God and his angelic 0 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall vassals, on the other. 23 Attracting young men with radical sentiments or otherwise unconventional attitudes, Godwin’s home was also a hub for discussions about the social changes made possible by the secular perspective of contemporary science, disencumbered by the crippling notions of mainstream morality. Controversies about mankind’s purpose were considered in light of, for instance, Georges Buffon’s (1707–88) accounts of the resemblances between the human physical frame and that of apes and other primates. The young Mary was, therefore, immersed into a heady intellectual climate that encouraged her to speculate about the reforming potentials of contemporary science. Percy Bysshe Shelley, an influential figure in her father’s circle of friends, was intrigued by the roaming imagination of the young Mary – so much so that the couple decided to elope in 1814. The early dialogues between the precocious child and the already established writer were to grow ever more intensive and, as Barbour argues, inspired the dramatic momentum required for transforming Mary’s fantasy about an artificially created being into a speculative drama about the consequences of contemporary science. In the late eighteenth century, the understanding and experience of space began to change in response to the accumulation of a vast bulk of new information about the geography of far-flung places. In parallel with this development, unprecedented efforts to grasp the secrets of the human mind, psyche and soul probed into the inner spaces of human existence. It goes without saying that the attempt to map and chart the phenomena of the mind could not follow equally objective principles. As Christa Knellwolf’s chapter explains, the inability to draw an objective map made it difficult to proceed. However, it also provided scope for imagining a vastness of imaginary space that reflects the minute infinities revealed by contemporary microscopes. At issue, however, are not the microscopic dimensions that will be the concern of twentieth-century microbiology, but the limitless nature of consciousness and imagination. The parallels between inner and outer space bears special salience for the setting of Frankenstein: The immense distances traversed, particularly in its narrative frame, position the novel’s eponymous hero in both an emotional and a geographic desert. The impossible spaces of the narrative and physical setting of the story, then, raise questions about whether the uncompromising realisation of ideals and absolutes is achievable for an ordinary human being. Contemporary debates on the sanctity of human life are a key concern of Frankenstein. Anita Guerrini’s chapter argues that early nineteenth-century debates about vivisection were motivated not only by the nascent sensitivity towards the sufferings of animals, but also responded to long-standing, religiously motivated attempts to ban experiments that pried into the mysteries of life – human and animal. The discovery and description of the nervous system, however, critically depended on the possibility of observing the physical locations of pain. Like Frankenstein himself, prominent scientists in the field found it difficult to cope with the gruesome aspects of vivisection and were unsure about whether they had a right to proceed with their research. Audiences were still eager to attend public Introduction 11 performances in anatomy but antivivisection debates shed important light on the contested public perception of anatomical-medical experimenters. Francois Magendie (1783–1855) – a French anatomist who regularly performed public dissections in order to demonstrate the body’s sensory functions – as a case in point, who illustrates a growing discomfort with the scientists’ wish to spy ever more deeply into the borderlines between life and death. So a further parallel between the real and fictional scientist emerges as an urgent concern of the novel, consisting of the fact that neither the real nor fictional scientist were horrified by the gruesome environment of the charnel house or suffici ently awed by the idea that a dead human body was the receptacle of a recently departed soul. Frankenstein’s creature is frequently referred to as a monster. While this trite stereotype fails to grasp the problems implicit in contemporary fantasies about the perfectibility of the human body and mind, it also ignores the fact that the monster posed enormous problems for the taxonomies of comparative anatomy, which is why teratology – the scientific explanation of the existence of monsters – emerged as an influential branch of contemporary science. Diverging significantly from the characteristics identified by received definitions of a particular species, Melinda Cooper argues that the nature and purpose of these alternative life-forms posed endless problems and questions. Were they simple variants of the normal representatives of a species, were they a sign that the health of a species had been undermined, or were they indications of special transformations waiting to manifest themselves in the imminent future? Such questions need to be raised in regard to Frankenstein’s so-called monstrous creation. Their relevance is further documented by the fact that debates about the problematic role of the monster must have occurred between the Shelleys and their friend William Lawrence (1783–1867), a leading figure in the controversy over whether the origin of life was the consequence of materialist or vitalist principles. As regards the philosophical conception of Frankenstein’s creature, the context of teratological controversies opens up a new understanding of the novel’s analysis of the origin and meaning of different forms of life. Allan K. Hunter’s focus on an evolutionary perspective leads to a very different interpretative approach, exploring the social and political implications of the creature’s life course. The evolutionary theories at issue here are those of Erasmus Darwin, whose untempered admiration for the revolutionary energies surfacing in America and France fed into his hypothetical modelling of the future state of life forms. Hunter’s essay examines the claim that Enlightenment science enabled new view of the human condition that comes into existence between a distant past and a distant future, and whose endless transformations generate cultural anxieties about the approach of a new evolutionary phase. Seen through the lens of Darwin’s revolutionary optimism and Godwin’s doctrine of perfectability, the creature is endowed with preternatural learning abilities, extreme powers of endurance and a body size that makes him dominant in any physical contest. Yet he is a lso transformable into a force of chaos and a generator of cyclic violence. His creation as a manufacturing process is thus a provocative reflection on the culture of 12 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall manufacturing innovation in England at the time. These tensions and provocations are revealed in the novel’s controversial reception, which also illustrates a growing anxiety in England about the nebulous and excessive tendencies of French thought, compared to English pragmatism. With our taken-for-granted attitude towards electricity, it is a challenge for twenty-first-century readers of Frankenstein to appreciate the imaginative potency of electrical researches in the Enlightenment period. Mary Shelley’s novel capitalizes on the dramatic cultural and psychological impact of electrical discovery as well as its immediately spectacular manifestations. Amongst her contemporaries, electricity was regarded as a life science or, more than that, as the science of life itself. Ian Jackson emphasizes that the most popular and spectacular forms of electrical experiment involved human and animal bodies. Such experiments promised to unlock forces of unlimited potential that might change the destiny of the species, effecting a transformation of human being in metaphysical as well as material terms. When unseen electrical forces were made to cause visible objects and bodies to move, or emit sparks, or to attract other objects towards them, this created a meeting point between the perceptual frameworks of science and animism. Through Galvanic experiments in which the corpses of recent gallows victims were made to dance, these forces are specifically linked with the fantasy of reanimation. The agonies of conscience experienced by Victor Frankenstein also reflect the intensity of debates surrounding researches into electricity which, from an orthodox religious point of view, were dangerously impious, because to reveal those things in creation that were hidden from the human senses was to transgress divine intention. If the Creator had wanted them to be known, He would have made them evident in the first place. Against this view, there was the Newtonian defence that the study of nature, with the purpose of revealing the workings of God to man, is essentially pious because it enables fuller human admiration of divine perfection. The unashamed atheism of the Shelley circle, and their embrace of Prometheus as the greatest of mythical heroes, prompted a move away from defensiveness to the lyrical celebration of bold discovery. However, Jackson suggests that in Frankenstein, Mary Shelley is offering a more troubled view of scientific aspiration. Joan Kirkby’s analysis of the spiritualist ideas underpinning the story of Victor Frankenstein brings up the question of what was regarded as a ‘science’ in the early nineteenth century. Mesmerism combined elements from the knowledge domains of astronomy, electricity and magnetism, with interpretative frameworks belonging to the practices of clairvoyance and spiritualism. Major philosophical thinkers such as Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and Arthur Schopenhauer (1788– 1860) interested themselves in the presence of spirits, and many of the works of eighteenth-century scientific writers include serious commentary on the permeability of the boundary between life and death. Leading spiritualists of this time, as Kirkby points out, were also leading scientists. Emanuel Swedenborg Introduction 13 (1688–1772) was led by his sophisticated interests in anatomy and the composition of matter to enquire into the specific location of the connecting point between body and soul. In this light, the anatomical work of Frankenstein, driven by an impassioned commitment to dismantling the boundary between life and death, takes on heightened implications. The themes of the novel can also be seen as closely linked with those of Percy Shelley’s major poems, in which a view of matter itself as spirit is xpounded with powerful conviction. The culture of collecting was one of the most significant forms of public engagement with the natural sciences in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. As Christine Cheater observes, some of the tensions played out in the novel are reflections of larger cultural tensions exemplified in the design and management of collections. Victor Frankenstein’s adventures take him from the extremes of conf inement, working day and night in his domestic laboratory, to some of the wildest and most remote landscapes of the world. Similarly, the quest for scientific trophies could lead to travels around the globe but also to the experience of confinement amongst the obsessive and personalised clutter of the cabinet of curiosities. There were tensions, too, between the curiosity driven projects of the private collectors or virtuosi and the growing commitment to expertise and professional specialization, with its attendant demands for greater exclusivity in the management and accessibility of collections. Cheater compares the careers of Ashton Lever (1729–88) and John Gould (1804–81) as exemplars of this transition and the tragic personal costs it sometimes entailed, suggesting that the disastrous conclusion of Victor Frankenstein’s enterprise shares some symptomatic elements. Scientific fictions about the existence of different forms of life did not begin with Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Stories embraced in long-standing speculations about whether there are other worlds and, if so, what their inhabitants might look like, date back at least to Bernard le Bovier de Fontelle’s (1657–1757) scientific popularisation of Cartesianism. While early fantasies about the appearance of beings living outside or beneath the surface of the earth demonstrate little fear about the implications for their own world, Mary Shelley’s novel adds a decisively worrying twist to the theme. Sharing the planet with another species that is their own equivalent (or even superior) may be a prospect for which human nature is not ready, though in her later novel The Last Man, Shelley envisaged a world evacuated of the human species as a place of profound metaphysical emptiness. This work points towards a tradition of bleaker fictional renditions of the future. By the end of the nineteenth century, apocalyptic fantasies dominated the imagination of writers, such as H. G. Wells, disillusioned about the promises of science and their period’s irresponsible treatment of natural resources. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a work that stands at the beginning of such dark visions about the barbarities resulting from a science that is used in the service of megalomaniacs wishing to control the world rather than as a tool for the spread of Enlightenment ideas and values. It is time to reengage with the novel as a work 14 Christa Knellwolf and Jane Goodall that is filled with the energies of scientific aspiration, as well as misgivings about human failure to realise it. Notes 1 Evelyn Fox Keller, Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death: Essays on Language, Gender and Science (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 49. Anne K. Mellor probably offers the most fully developed of such readings in Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (London: Routledge, 1988). See Isaac Asimov, ‘Robots, computers and fear’, Introduction to Machines That Think (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 1; Bernard E. Rollin, ed. The Frankenstein Syndrome: Ethical and Social Issues in the Genetic Engineering of Animals (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995). Patricia Fara, An Entertainment for Angels (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2002), p. 22. Desmond King-Hele, Doctor of Revolution: The Life and Genius of Erasmus Darwin (London: Faber & Faber, 1977). Jenny Uglow, The Lunar Men: The Friends Who Made the Future, 1730–1810 (London: Faber & Faber, 2002). Erasmus Darwin, letter to Benjamin Franklin, 29 May 1787 in American Philosophical Society collection of Franklin Papers XXXV, 70; quoted in King-Hele (London: Faber & Faber, 1977), p. 79. Mary Wollstonecraft, An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, in Mary Wollstonecraft, Political Writings, ed. Janet Todd (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 292. Ian Hunter, Rival Enlightenments: Civil and Metaphysical Philosophy in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001). For a historical background of eighteenth-century freemasonry, see Margaret Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991). For a etailed historical analysis of Illuminism, see Richard van Dulmen, Der Geheimbund der Illuminaten: Darstellung, Analyse, Dokumentation, trans. Christa Knellwolf (Stuttgart: F. Frommann, 1975), p. 159. Denis Diderot and Jean Dâ₠¬â„¢Alembert Le Rond, eds, L’Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des art et des sciences (Paris: Le Breton, 1751–72). For a discussion of the cultural context and objectives of the philosophes, see David Garrioch, ‘The party of the Philosophes’, in The Enlightenment World, eds Martin Fitzpartick, Peter Jones, Christa Knellwolf and Iain McCalman (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 26–41. Compare the entry for ‘Illuminati’ in the Catholic Encyclopaedia online: [accessed 10 October 2007]. Antoine Lavoisier, Traite elementaire de chimie, presente dans un ordre nouveau et d'apres les decouvertes modernes, 2 vols (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; repr. Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965). Mary Shelley, Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus: The 1818 Text (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), p. 30. All further references are from this text and are cited parenthetically. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Introduction 15 5 Johann Weyer, De praestigii s daemonum, trans. John Shea, in Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance (Binghamton, NY: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991 [1583]). 16 For the details of Godwin’s study, see Lives of the Necromancers: or, An Account of the Most Eminent Persons in Successive Ages, Who Have Claimed for Themselves, or to Whom Has Been Imputed by Others, the Exercise of Magical Power (London: Frederick J. Mason, 1834). 17 Also compare Robert Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1968); and Auguste Viatte, Les sources occultes du romanticism, illuminism, theosophie, 1770–1820 (Paris: Champion, 1965). 18 John [Giovanni] Aldini, ‘An account of the late improvements in galvanism, with a series of curious and interesting experiments performed before the commissioners of the French National Institute, and repeated lately in the anatomical theaters of London’ (London: 1803). Extracts from this document available online at [accessed 10 October 2007]. 19 Erasmus Darwin, The Temple of Nature (London: J. Johnson, 1803), Canto II, iv, lines 246–51. 20 Peter Haining, The Man Who Was Frankenstein (London: Frederick Muller, 1979), pp. 56–63. 21 William Blake, Jerusalem; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 22 William Wordsworth, The Excursion, Book 8, pp. 243 and 244; quoted from Literature Online [accessed 10 October 2007]. 23 For a historical overview of the concept, see A. O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1948).

Ecosystems and How They Work Essay

Question 1. The industrialization of the United States began after the civil war and started to peak in the late 19th century as capital equipment and tools were developed. This made the rapid production of more goods for more people possible. This resulted in the expansion of the factory system allowing people to make a living by manufacturing, commerce, trade or finance. Industrialization, urbanization and immigration caused people to move from the village to the city and together with the influx of foreign immigrants, this led to a dramatic growth in urban population (Faulkner, 1924). The increasing density of industry, transportation and housing had negative impacts on both the land and the lives of the urban dwellers such that alongside with the revolution came the problem of pollution in all its forms – air, garbage, water and noise. The factories needed less variable energy production to run the factories thus energy production shifted from the waterwheel to the burning of fossil fuels and fuel oils. At first, the urban industrial centers took pride in black smoke as a symbol of progress and triumph of civilization. With the invention of the automobile and its rise in popularity, their exhaust fumes further exacerbated the already noxious emissions from the factories. These led to a multitude of respiratory ailments. The problem of garbage came with the increasing population. These accumulated faster than they can be collected and disposed. Even the horse-drawn carts utilized for the collection contributed to this problem as the equine waste s created both health hazards and foul odors. Then, the industrial effluents and sewage from were polluting the river systems. The public started to become aware that the environment cannot absorb limitless amounts of waste. By the 1960’s, the threat became too great. During the mid-twentieth century, the focus on environmental concerns was on the conservation of resources such as forest, ranges and water which led to the passage of laws such as the Taylor Grazing Act (1934), Soil Conservation Act (1935) and even the building of the Hoover Dam (formerly known as the Boulder Dam) to provide cheap electric power along with flood control, recreation and soil conservation. In the 1960’s, according to the environmental historian Samuel P. Hays, there was a shift â€Å"in emphasis from resource efficiency to that of quality of life based on beauty, health and permanence†¦ arising out of the social changes and transformation in human values in the post-War years† (cited in Faulkner, 2002). Various private organizations were found, public agencies established and acts passed to address environmental issues. In 1969, there was Friends of the Earth (FOE) which aimed to protect the planet from environmental disaster and to preserve biological, cultural and ethnic diversity. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) made it mandatory for federal agencies to prepare environment impact statement. To regulate the air and water quality, hazard and disposal management, the Environmental Protection Agency was established. In 1970, Earth Day was first promoted to fight environment causes and to oppose environmental degradation which led o the Environmental Movement. In the same year, the U. S. passed the Clean Air Act. Almost two decades later, an agreement by industrialized nations called the Kyoto Protocol was reached to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Merchant, 2002). The cost of substantially reducing industrial pollution is high but the costs of ignoring it is even higher as it would compromise the sustainability of life itself. Question 2. â€Å"The biosphere is a closed ecological system with finite resources and its equilibrium is maintained by grand-scale recycling† (â€Å"Pollution†, 2004). Fungi and bacteria play major roles in maintaining a balanced ecosystem as they are in essence nature’s recyclers. Some of these processes where they are involved include photosynthesis and respiration, nitrogen fixation and denitrification. When an organic material is decomposed, the atmospheric supply of carbon dioxide is replenished. Carbon dioxide is needed by plants for the photosynthetic process where oxygen is a by-product and released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is essential for human respiration. Plants also need nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus in the form of phosphates in order to flourish. These can be found in the soil. Nitrogen is obtained through nitrification through microbes oxidizing ammonium to form nitrate and nitrate salts. It can also be obtained through bacteria living in the root nodules of legumes. They obtain fee nitrogen from the air, and synthesize or fix it or even just incorporate it into their bodies so when they die, the nitrogen compounds are released. The phosphorous cycle does not include a gaseous state. Instead, phosphates are removed from rocks where it usually occurs and distributed to both the soil and water. The plant absorbs all the nutrients it needs from the soil, produce its own food, releases oxygen, then are eaten by herbivores, who themselves are eaten by carnivores. The phosphates absorbed are returned to the soil through urine and feces as well as from plant and amanimal decomposition. Since the industrial revolution, we have increasingly ignored or altered the natural cycles. The resulting explosion in economic output has come at the cost of the long-term and dangerous depletion of natural capital. By relying on nitrogen fertilizer instead of organic farm wastes, we have reduced the fertility of agricultural lands and created dead zones in our oceans and rivers. Our logging operations and regular use of fossil fuels have increased atmospheric carbon concentrations to very high levels. By diverting or damming our rivers, we’ve dried out seas (or created new ones), changes local weather patterns and disrupted entire ecosystems. Nature will not be able to keep up if the natural cycles are disrupted by high quantities of wastes. We know this simply cannot go on.

Organizational Behavior and the Individual Essay - 2

Organizational Behavior and the Individual - Essay Example In addition, experts have indicated that in midst of globalization; organizations are now dealing with people from different cultural and social backgrounds that have resulted in increment in the significance of organizational behavioral study (McShane & Glinow, 2010). Moreover, readings have indicated that there seems an on-going change and transformation in the trends of organizational behavior in the organizations due to a number of factors, such as workforce diversity, internet workplaces, employee relations, etc. In order to understand the significance of organizational behavior, this paper will focus on the Wal-Mart. In the Wal-Mart, major responsibility of work is on the managers that put efforts to carry out work efficiently. In addition, the company has taken care of employees, as well as the customers by the establishing the MARS model that focuses primarily on four factors of motivation, ability, role perception, and situational factors. In this regard, it is very imperative for every manager in the Wal-Mart to understand the MARS model. For instance, one of the most common factors is motivational factor that managers use at the Wal-Mart to influence their employees. According to David Bourassa (2010), a number of theories, such as Motivation theory have also indicated the importance of motivation theory in influencing the employees. In addition, Maslow’s hierarchy is another imperative example of the impact of organizational behavior in the different business processes. For instance, Maslow’s levels are as follows: Experts have discussed that application of abovementioned levels of Maslow can play a vital role in improving the performance of organizations, especially in the customer service department. Besides motivation, ability is another important factor in the MARS model, which indicates the recognition of abilities of every individual by himself in the organization that is very important for

Criminalology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Criminalology - Essay Example Institutional violence is a chaotic incidence that results in physical or mental injuries. In this case, the violence culminates into suffering, loss and body harm. There are five main types of institutional violence. Intrapersonal violence occurs when a person decides to harm himself /herself. In this case, the occurrence is referred to as suicide or self mutilation. People commit suicide through poisoning, hanging or drowning among other forms of suicide. Interpersonal violence takes place between two persons. In this case, a person causes body harm to another one in cases such as rape, sexual assault and psychological attach among others. Gang violence is usually perpetrated by a group of organized criminals or a gang. In this case, the gang organizes attack on a person or a group of persons. The gang is usually formally organized or loosely attached to each other to commit a crime. Organized attack is perpetrated by a group of well organized attackers to the prison staff. Lastly, institutional violence is the attack done by the prison staff to the offender. In this case, the prisoners are sexually, emotionally and sexually attacked by the prison wardens. The rehabilitation program must have clear and concise objectives. In this case, objectives to be achieved must be clearly stipulated and communicated to both the facilitator and the prisoners. At the beginning of the rehabilitation classes, the facilitator should take sufficient time to explain to the prisoners the specific steps that they need to have achieved by the end of a specified period. In this case, the goals need to be reasonably figural to help the learner realize how much they have achieved and how much is yet to be done. In addition, these goals require to be based on clear theories or concepts. As such, the goals must be drawn for extensive research conducted by reputable

MGMT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

MGMT - Assignment Example As a leader, I see it as a challenge to make everyone understand that the goals we are working on are for the good of everyone. I must work with people who have different opinions in order to find a common line with them where we can meet halfway so we can achieve our purpose. I also need to make people feel happy and satisfied as we work on our goals so they would be more willing to follow the visions I see as a leader. Moreover, it would help them become better workers if they are happy with what they are doing. I do not see failure as a challenge since it is not an option for me at all. Once I get people to willingly and happily follow me, success would almost be at hand. I firmly believe in the behavioral theory of leadership since I see leadership as a skill, not just something a person is born with. Since it is a skill, it can be learned, enhanced, and perfected through practice and experience. By believing so, I will treat my followers as potential leaders so they will respect me both as a person and as a leader. Leadership is not just a rank, but it is a character at work and one that can be

Abu Dhabi Aviation Co Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Abu Dhabi Aviation Co - Essay Example The company has seen its expansion of its operations to cover the region and several contracts throughout the Middle East and beyond. It serves countries like Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Republic of Yemen, Spain Eritrea and Australia. Abu Dhabi Aviation Co. has operated 2 Bell 212 helicopters which are in support of long-term contracts involving a major oil company in the Republic of Yemen. Now the company is targeting an approach of 1,000,000 flight hours in helicopters and an average of over 55,000 hours in fixed wing aircraft. The mission of the Abu Dhabi Aviation Co. is to provide innovative solutions in every part of the globe while exceeding stakeholder, customer and employee expectations. Its vision is to be one team, propelling Abu Dhabi Aviation safety and cost-effectively into the future. It outlines its values as Quality, Safety, Customer Focus, Teamwork, integrity, and Ethics. The goals of the company are that they are never compromised in the provision of safety which i s their top priority and fundamental core value. Secondly, they value timely, innovative, efficient, reliable, cost-effective and best quality services and thirdly they are committed to achieving the highest levels of customer satisfaction. Employee profileThe Abu Dhabi Aviation Co. has employed more than 900 personnel, which includes over 150 pilots and over 150 aircraft maintenance engineers (Abu Dhabi Aviation, 2010). It is governed by a board of directors ranging from the Chairman, the Vice Chairman, and board members.

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

History - Essay Example Scott and Shade point out that the civil rights movement fights motivated others to struggle for justice. Through peaceful direct action and registration of voters, student movement gave origin to profoundly liberation experiences that afterward engulfed American campuses and, soon after, American war in Vietnam (221). According to Reichard, in 1950s, there was underlying poverty in America and so was tranquility and domesticity visible than real. In the growing civil right movements, African-American men and women prearranged their communities and launched firm protest against prejudice and separation, taking courage from national liberation movement in all over the world. Reichard further explains that women’s movement took shape in most part of the world – advocated for socialite feminism evolutionally change, called for extension liberal feminism of the rights of men and women, exploitation of reproductive capacity and women sexuality and devaluing of women radical feminism. Civil right society had a wide range of objectives.

Leadership and Performance Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Leadership and Performance Management - Essay Example In addition to that, recession also added to their demise. Heavy operating costs allowed other competitors with lower costs to capture North American market which was GM’s territory earlier. While assessing some of the decisions taken by GM’s leadership, it was found that closure of GM’s hybrid cars unit along with layoffs and prior faulty acquisitions added to GM’s expense list which had no means to be satisfied. 1.1 Key Findings GM has faced problems due to its highly bureaucratic culture and sluggish approach towards development and innovation. Its slow performance in the recent years has its roots in its earlier catastrophic decisions that were taken in 1970s and 80s but had a long-term impact on the organizational performance which ultimately leads to a government bailout in 2009. GM has made several bad investments in the vehicle models that were not answering consumer’s requirements and also were competitive to each other which further result ed in slow growth of the company. GM had various brands at its portfolio which required major expenses in terms of research and development for proper brand management. Failure to keep up with consumers’ demands ultimately lead to slow sales of these brands which affected cash inflow in turn (Maynard, 2009). Instead of ensuring that consumers’ demands for compact and energy-efficient cars is met, GM under the leadership of Wagoner, shut down EV1 electric cars program. With lower vehicle sales, the operating expenses and manufacturing costs increased greatly as a result of which GM was forced to increase its prices. The burden was passed onto the consumer which act as a deterrent for GM’s sales. As a result of this program’s shutdown, billions were lost in terms of research and development. Furthermore, there was a major recall from the roads which made GM compensate the lessees for the losses incurred. The already manufactured models were crushed which no t only failed to recover original manufacturing costs but also added to it due to extra expenses incurred in terms of amortization. Failure to capture the niche market on timely basis allowed Japanese cars to capture a major North market share which was the territory of GM earlier (Hartung, 2009). Shutting down hybrid cars program had a major impact on GM’s profitability. But most importantly, it affected the brand image greatly. It strengthen GM’s persona of being a giant and slow enterprise incapable of understanding consumer’s requirement and respond to it accordingly. Due to global recession and GM’s series of bad decisions especially poor brand management, faulty investments and shut down of hybrid cars, GM filed a loss of over $ 30 million dollars. These losses include major amounts in terms of lowered share prices and also exceptional operational expenses. After filing these losses, GM filed for bankruptcy and was later bailed out by US government. 1.2 Evidences One of the major evidences that indicated GM’s catastrophic decision making failures was GM’s financial statements and other reports published on the subject matter. According to Hargreaves (2008), â€Å"General Motors reported a huge second-quarter net loss Friday of $15.5 billion, after restructuring and other charges, as the automaker's run of troubles continued. The automaker lost $27.33 per share in the quarter, compared to a

Organizations and Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Organizations and Behaviour - Essay Example At Tesco the focus is on young people and hence it looks at providing the opportunities for the people in their working lives. Culture helps the employees bind them together with their colleagues, customers and their communities. They aim at creating trust by having a culture which is anchored in truth. Tesco have the culture which is characterised by a collective desire to do the right thing. Right culture has helped Tesco steer their business in the right direction in how they serve their colleagues, customers and communities. In Tesco in the financial sector there is a manager or an employee who has to follow the structure of the organisation. The decisions are made by the management throughout the working day and it impacts the structure and practice of all other employees in the company. There are both internal and external factors which motivate an employee. The internal factors include communication, motivation while the external factors include incentives and sales target. Communication is crucial and is important for the employees to be able to exercise their right. Further the whistle blowing policy at Tesco helps raise ethical issues and report grievances. Tesco understands the importance of motivated staff and supports the staff with a work-life balance through flexible working, discount gym membership etc. Tesco offers competitive salaries at all the levels and offers a whole package in ways that help the employees make more money, look after their health and safeguard their future. The communication of Tesco should ensure that appropriate communication policies are put in place and work effectively in building and protecting the reputation of the Group both internally and externally. It should to have a structured communications programme to provide the colleagues with clarity on matters. The Board of directors should review the performance targets for the current year and give awards to employees to ensure that they remain motivated to the

The General Prologue Essay Example for Free

The General Prologue Essay Unlike monks, Friars were allowed to leave the monastery but they were supposed to do so to serve the community. The friar should have begged for money and preached to the laity but Chaucers Friar only associates with the wealthy, Ful wel beloved and famulier was he/ With frankelyns over al in his contree. He was not strict on sinners pleasant was his absolutioun instead he took money to absolve sins, immorally taking money from those in poverty For thogh a widwe hadde noght a sho,/ So plesaunt was his In principio,-/ Yet wolde he have a ferthing, er he wente. Chaucer lists the various sins of the Friar: he sells pardon from sin for a price, seduces women who ask for pardons, and frequents bars rather than giving charity to the poor He knew the tavernes wel in every toun Bet than a lazar of a beggestere. Chaucer is deeply sarcastic; he picks out the misdemeanours of the Monk but seyd his opinion was good and that certainly he was a fair prelaat. This sarcasm emphasizes Chaucers contempt of the church as he mocks the Monk and invites the reader to dislike him. Similarly Chaucer uses irony in his portrait of the Friar, as he often does in the use of the word worthy. When he says, This worthy man was cleped Huberd he uses irony to express is distaste; the friar is not worthy in his profession or in his private life which should be dedicated to the church. The Parson, portrayed later in The General Prologue provides a strong contrast with the friar as a man who performs his duties honourably and looks after his congregation. Chaucer obviously respects the Parson; he is a good man also a lerned man benign he was, and wonder diligent,/ And in adversitee ful pacient. All these qualities are highly regarded and admirable, and none are shared with the Friar. The portrait of the Parson increases the impression that the church was corrupt at this time by giving an example of what was expected. Additionally, the parson is the only religious character presented as truly devout which suggests that the majority of the church was corrupt. Chaucer introduces religious characters in The General Prologue as unworthy and dishonest, particularly the Friar who deceived and neglected his people. He uses the religious characters on the pilgrimage to comment on the church, which had great power in his time. Great attention is paid to the appearance of the characters, particularly of the Monk, which highlights the materialism present, a great contrast to the poverty vowed in the religious orders.

Criminal Investigation Is The Process Of Discovering Criminology Essay

Criminal Investigation Is The Process Of Discovering Criminology Essay A Criminal Investigation is the process of discovering, collecting, preparing, identifying and presenting evidence to determine what happened and who is responsible. It is a reconstructive process that uses deductive reasoning, a logical process in which a conclusion follows from specific facts. From specific pieces of evidence, investigators establish proof that a suspect is guilty of an offence. (Hess Orthmann, 2010) In this assignment Im going to provide a clear understanding of an appropriate investigative approach toward theft form residence. Theft form residence in other countries is also known as a Burglary. This kind of crime is considered to be one of the most important crimes worldwide, since it is also one of the most common forms of criminal behaviour. The definition of burglary is defined by each states criminal code and it various from one code to another, although some commonalities exists and are generally reflected in the elements of the crime. Burglary is committed when a person, knowingly breaks, or remains, in a building or structure belonging to anther for the purpose of committing a crime therein. Burglary is referred as a crime against the dwelling that is violated and there is no need of direct violence towards any occupants. The public regards theft as a major crime problem since for many persons it is a traumatic event when they realize that someone unknown to them has invaded their privacy of their homes and personal belongings and stolen their possessions. Burglars are most often to choose suitable targets like elderly persons, women who live alone. Perpetrators often ransack rooms to look for valuables and make it difficult for victims to establish what is missing. Their targets are cash, televisions, computers, radios, jewellery, guns, tools and several household goods that either they use for their personal needs or to sell them. Theft from residence occurs mostly when most persons are away from their residence. Very often burglars main victims are those people that uses the same routine day to day and so that certain time is more susceptible to burglary due to the routine absence of residents like going work, shopping, mass etc. Burglars are either to be amateurs or long time professionals. The amateurs are usually to be unskilled and they learn by trial and error. They easily make mistakes and eventually are caught by the police, although once convicted they gain experience and learn from the trade ones. More experiences burglars are more trained, they may have more lookouts who are in communication through mobile or even radios and often a getaway vehicle is used and usually close to the burglary site. Most burglars motives are drug related and monetary. Approaching on the scene of crime Investigation initiates from that moment that the police receives the phone call. Reports can be received by the victim itself, neighbour or anyone else that may have noticed or suspected any different movements or noises. One should be very cautiously due to the fact that the crime could have occurred any time and perpetrators could still be inside premises or nearby. Investigators should be on the alert for any persons fleeing the area, suspicious or well known persons that are known by the police and suspicious vehicles. The first officer to respond a burglary call is usually the patrol division officer. Officers should first determine whether a crime is currently in progress. When a crime is still being carried out, officer must call for more help in order to prevent the escape of the suspect/s. On the way to the scene of crime officer should approach the burglary location without warning emergency lights or siren. After arriving one can observe certain reliable indicators that a burglary has been or still being for example open doors, windows. The first attendant officer should immediate preserve the crime scene, in order to maximise forensic opportunities due to the fact that there is few amount of time before the evidence will be contaminated. The crime scene should be secured and the victims are to be escorted to an area not part of the investigation and it is to be made sure that victims dont touch anything. The Preliminary Investigation Preliminary investigation is of utmost importance, although some investigators tend to simply skip the necessary steps of a preliminary investigation due to the fact that theft from residence are seen as being high-time investment for low results awards. The preliminary investigation should start by obtaining information about the type of structure which has been burglarized. It has to be established the time, date, the whereabouts of the owner, points and methods of entry and exit, however it is important to determinate who the occupant of the residence burglared is and where they were at the time of the offence, the time they left the residence, if all doors and windows were properly locked and if any visitors have been recently been there. Burglar can gain access by forced open a door or a window by means of tools, by break out or cut a small pain of glass in order to unlock a door from the inside. It is important to discover what type of tool was used and how the perpetrator had gained entrance. When no signs of forced entry are found it may indicate that burglar entered through an open or unlocked door or might possess the key of the residence. The next step for an investigator to carry out the preliminary investigation is to search, collect and preserve evidence. Great care must be taken when searching for evidence. The point of entry is usually the area which has the most evidence. When walking around the scene one must use extreme caution. Search must start from near where the perpetrator entered. One must locate where items were disturbed or removed. After the search, it has to be determinate the type and amount of loss with complete description. An important step in the preliminary investigation is the Modus Ope randi. The identifications of a unique modus operandi are essential in investigating burglary due to the fact that most burglars commit a series of burglars using the same patterns. One should look for the time of day, location, type of methods used to gain entrance, type of vandalism, things stolen for example cash only or jewellery and any particularities of the offence. Such patterns can tie and lead several burglaries to one suspect. Preliminary investigations also include interview the victim, and any witness available, enquiring with neighbourhood for witnesses and the identifications of CCTV cameras. A sketch of the scene of crime and a list of property stolen could also help toward the investigation. Witnesses Some might think that when it comes to deal with the crime of burglaries, there are few witnesses but in actually there might be more than one believes. Police tend to miss and to try to locate witnesses. Witnesses are very important in the process of solving crimes and they have very often been the key persons in such situations. Eyewitness are those who can provide a detailed account of the circumstances which otherwise would be lost and weaken the evidence. One also has to bear in mind that there may be instances where their evidence could also be unreliable. Although the testimony given by eyewitnesses has often been criticised it has always been given weight by Judges and Juries in a court of law. When a burglar is committed, police should investigate immediate the area and look out for a potential witness that can identified or can develop a description of a suspect. Physical Evidence Domestic burglary scenes are visited by SOCO in order to maximise forensic opportunities. When searching for physical evidence at a burglary scene it will also require the help of the victim who can easily identify what has been moved and what items does not belong to the owner. Forensic recovery includes the photographing of the crime scene and the discovery of physical evidence that may include fingerprints, footprints inside and outside the house for example below windows, fibers, hair, tire prints, tool marks, tools, and broken glass and paint chips and even personal items such as discarded cigarette butts. Often times burglars tend to drink and eat whatever is at hand in the kitchen of the burgled home and therefore they also leave traces of DNA on a bottle or cup. As stated by Mairs (1930), fingerprints are considered to be accurate and valuable marks in the process of identifying a human body due to the fact that the patterns and characteristics of the fingerprint are unique. They are the most common form of evidence that can be found in a scene of crime. Trace evidence can establish a link between the perpetrator and the scene of crime. The Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is a great advance in scientific criminal investigation and it is possible to search criminal record for a single latent print. A latent fingerprint is the type of fingerprint that most of the time is found in burglary, which gives a positive clue to the offenders identification and conviction (Horhan, 1991). The classification of fingerprints is important because these are filed and can be retrieved by the investigators when there is need to make identifications (Cunliffe et al. 1980). A case where it is clearly shown the importance of fingerprint was held in America State v Connors. The experts produced photographs at court showing fingerprints of a perpetrator upon a balcony of a residence that has been burgled and in addition the experts testified that same fingerprints found at the crime scene matched those of the perpetrator. The accused has been found guilty of committing the burglar (Horgan, 1991). Fingerprints are not always enough to support evidence in certain criminal cases. A marked example of this is the case of Il-Pulizija (Spettur Keith Arnaud) vs Victor Degabriele. Mr Degabriele was accused of theft from residence of Mr Nazzareno Mercieca from Xghajra. Although a fingerprint elevated from a box that had contained a watch which has been one of the stolen items had matched with the left hand thumb of the accused, the court decided that due to the principle of in dubbio pro reo the court is of the opinion that the legal prosecution had not met the required evidence requested by law. It was decided that Victor Degabriele was not guilty of charges issued. Shoes and shoe marks are also common physical evidence that can be found in a scene of crime. If collected, properly analyzed and recorded can yield to important investigative data. Shoe footprint can provide unique wear patterns that can be compared with a suspects shoes. Shoe print can indicate whether the suspect was running, walking or even if it was carrying something heavy, if it was familiar with the area or unsure of the terrain. The pattern, size, personal characteristics and coincidental characteristics can make a shoe mark unique. LeMay (2006, p.42) stated that dust impression can be made when a person with dust on their shoes walks on a surface, thereby transferring the dust from their shoes to the surface they step on. Shoe marks are to be photographed and latent fingerprint lifters are used to lift shoe impressions from smooth surface. In a Maltese case, Il-pulizija (Insp. James Grech Insp Fabian Fleri) vs Silvio (Saviour) Pace, in which case, Silvio has been found guilty of burglarise two different residences in different time and dates. Investigators sustained their case with the help of shoe marks which were found in both burglarise homes and after a search in his residence the shoe was found and it resulted that such shoe marks belongs to the accused. In fact Silvio Pace had admitted the charges and he was send to prison for 32 months. Another possible evidence that can be found in burglarise offence are tyre marks which can be located around the burglary scene. Tyre marks can show the approximate speed, direction and even the manufacturer and year the tyres were made. Tools and Tools marks: The most common means used to gain entrance in a residence is the use of tools. Common tools that are used in a burglary are screwdrivers, glass cutter, vice grips, pry bars, picks and augers. Tools and Tools marks are important items of evidence. Most burgles use the same tool over and over again to gain entry in residence and this will lead to leave behind characteristics striation marks that can connect one burglar to another. Locards principle of exchange every contact leaves a trace came in force when tools are used to force open a door or a window by means of tools. When a burglary occurs and in the process the burglar smashes a window pane, unknowing, this has attracted physical evidence upon oneself. Traces or fragments of chipped glass or paint stick to clothing and shoe soles. These constitute importance physical evidence. When forensic experts collect this evidence on the crime scene and this is confronted to traces found on the suspect it would therefore be confirmed that the suspect had been on the crime scene. In certain residences one can found safes to protect their valuables. Burglars can either carried away or demolished safes. Safes have safe insulation which can also leave traces and fragments on clothing, shoes and even on tools the offender used. These fragments are very often even deposited in the vehicles that have been used for the crime. These can also be detected and matched. Another evidence that is becoming important in burglaries is the DNA. When a burglar gets cut while breaking into a structure, trace of blood can be elevated and therefore can be analyzed for DNA. A burglary investigation involves several stages like investigating the scene of the crime, collecting and preserving and available physical evidence, interviewing potential witnesses, using informants, examining records, tracing property and identifying suspects. A successful case will depend frequently on the investigators ability to handle clearly unrelated pieces of information in an analytical way. As stated by Clarke (1992) and Forrester et al. (1988) in order to deter the burglar, there should be more effective policing and enhanced situational prevention.

A TAle of Two Cities :: essays papers

A TAle of Two Cities In every great novel there is a theme that is constant throughout the story. One of the better known themes portrays the fight of good verses evil. Different authors portray this in different ways. Some use colors while others use seasons to show the contrast. Still others go for the obvious and use characters. But what makes them all so different is the authors point of view. In Charles Dicken's A Tale of Two Cities, he portrays good and evil in somewhat of a unique way. Dickens shows this difference by using characters, although we sometimes have to think about the difference between the good and the evil and wonder if they are not the same in the long run. Good and evil differs with the characters in this novel, yet sometimes coincides. One way Dickens portrays a good and evil character contrast is with Sydney Carton and John Barsad. Carton being the good and Barsad the evil. For instance, when Carton tells Lucie he would "do anything for her" it is a promise that he keeps until the end. Carton is a very trustworthy man and would do anything for someone he cares about. Anything including giving up his own life. Barsad, on the other hand, is a spy that doesn't care what he does or whom he hurts. Barsad is definitely not trustworthy for the simple fact that he has dedicated his life to deception. Also, he would do anything to save his own life. This is one way that Dicken's contrasts good and evil using characters. However Dickens also has those characters that are supposed to be good and evil except the reader can't always tell which is which, this happened with the peasants and aristocrats. At first the peasants are supposed to be the good and the aristocrats the evil, yet when the peasants have control they are just as bad as the aristocrats. When the aristocrats had all of the power they were bloodthirsty. They would "sentence a youth to death" for not kneeling for monks. This was a very bad time and this seems and is extremely evil. It seems as if the peasants were good, yet when the tables turned they acted the exact same way as the aristocrats. The peasants had "eleven hundred defenseless prisoners killed just because they could. So the peasants were just as evil as the aristocrats, even though both thought they had just cause. A TAle of Two Cities :: essays papers A TAle of Two Cities In every great novel there is a theme that is constant throughout the story. One of the better known themes portrays the fight of good verses evil. Different authors portray this in different ways. Some use colors while others use seasons to show the contrast. Still others go for the obvious and use characters. But what makes them all so different is the authors point of view. In Charles Dicken's A Tale of Two Cities, he portrays good and evil in somewhat of a unique way. Dickens shows this difference by using characters, although we sometimes have to think about the difference between the good and the evil and wonder if they are not the same in the long run. Good and evil differs with the characters in this novel, yet sometimes coincides. One way Dickens portrays a good and evil character contrast is with Sydney Carton and John Barsad. Carton being the good and Barsad the evil. For instance, when Carton tells Lucie he would "do anything for her" it is a promise that he keeps until the end. Carton is a very trustworthy man and would do anything for someone he cares about. Anything including giving up his own life. Barsad, on the other hand, is a spy that doesn't care what he does or whom he hurts. Barsad is definitely not trustworthy for the simple fact that he has dedicated his life to deception. Also, he would do anything to save his own life. This is one way that Dicken's contrasts good and evil using characters. However Dickens also has those characters that are supposed to be good and evil except the reader can't always tell which is which, this happened with the peasants and aristocrats. At first the peasants are supposed to be the good and the aristocrats the evil, yet when the peasants have control they are just as bad as the aristocrats. When the aristocrats had all of the power they were bloodthirsty. They would "sentence a youth to death" for not kneeling for monks. This was a very bad time and this seems and is extremely evil. It seems as if the peasants were good, yet when the tables turned they acted the exact same way as the aristocrats. The peasants had "eleven hundred defenseless prisoners killed just because they could. So the peasants were just as evil as the aristocrats, even though both thought they had just cause.

Educating Exceptionally Talented Students Essay -- Special Education

Concern for at-risk learners forces the education of high ability learners to take a backseat in traditional classroom. Standard instruction and curriculum based on a pacing and sequencing method does not always allow students to accelerate. By definition, the term â€Å"gifted† exemplifies exceptionality often regarding intellect, creativity and leadership. An identification of gifted suggests that an individual requires specialized services and curriculum that are not always addressed by traditional methods of education. High ability learners require a challenging curriculum and specialized educators to prosper academically. The negligence in discharging one’s exceptionality can often lead high-ability learners to foster resentment, boredom and frustration. Traditional instruction and curriculum is not always structured to benefit the needs of exceptional learners. Gifted education programs are essential in educating exceptionally talented students due to the indivi dualized approach toward a student’s unique learning-style. Self -contained gifted classrooms offer a structured environment that allow for social and intellectual growth opposed to the traditional classroom. The inherent flexibility within the gifted program facilitates gifted development of a high-ability learner through acceleration and enrichment. Self-contained gifted classrooms serve as a school within-a-school segregating exceptional learners from the traditional classroom and curriculum. This offers a more individualized approach towards learning and instruction required in adapting to the unique abilities and learning styles of a gifted student. Homogenous classrooms of gifted students allows for accommodations of content, instruction and environment creati... ...litate intellectual and social growth due to the inherent flexibility which adequately accommodates for diverse learning styles. High ability learners deserve the same amount monitoring and guidance as underachieving students. Gifted programs are targeted at rendering an affective curriculum that challenges high-ability learners where as some traditional classrooms exercise pacing and sequential methods. Through a self-contained gifted classroom one receives the individualized attention and guidance needed to reach full potential. Works Cited Refrences Acceleration. (2004). Retrieved from http://www.nagc.org/index.aspx?id=383 Delcourt, M.A.B., Cornell, D.G.,& Goldberg, M.D. (2007). Cognitive and affective learning outcomes of gifted elementary school students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51 (4), 359-381. from Research Library. (Document ID: 1390043111).

Behaviour of Fish in an Egyptian Tea Garden Commentary Essay

In the poem â€Å"Behaviour of Fish in an Egyptian Tea Garden† by Keith Douglas, a beautiful woman uses the power of seduction to attract many men. Douglas uses simile to describe the woman as a â€Å"white stone† while calling men different types of fish like â€Å"magnate, an important fish† and â€Å"flat-eyed fish†. Throughout the whole poem, Douglas seems to use the word â€Å"fish† many times. It seems he is describing the environment as an aquatic environment. Since it is third person limited, the reader does not know what the males are thinking, but using imagery the reader can know how they look at her and it is clear that the males are attracted to her. The poem contains seven stanzas with four lines in each stanza. It is a narrative poem because it has a plot about a beautiful woman trying to use her ways of seduction, but the men are too threatened of it and they soon run off. There is no rhyming scheme although there are some rhymes like â€Å"afternoon† and â€Å"spoon†. Each stanza does not have rhyming endings, only four out of seven stanzas have a rhyming scheme. An interested thing that the readers might notice is that each line has about nine or ten syllables. In stanza one, Douglas introduces the woman as a â€Å"white stone† and she â€Å"draws down the fish† (L.1). The first line describes the woman’s beauty and how it attracts the attention of all of the men in the room. The woman is most likely sitting and trying to look beautiful so all the men would want her. The woman â€Å"Draws down men’s glances and their cruel wish for love.† (Line 3) The woman is not doing anything and yet she has already done so much. Not only did she make the men look at her, but it seems they are also thinking about her and how they want to be with her. In stanza two, the reader learns about the woman’s way of seduction. â€Å"Slyly her red lip on the spoon/ slips in a morsel of the ice cream† (L.4, 5). Most men have a dirty mind, so when she put that spoon full of ice cream in her mouth, she got the men’s full attention. She is also wearing many different cosmetic accessories. She is wearing red lips stick and red nail polish while looking white or a â€Å"milky stone† (L.6). There is this one man in stanza three that seems to have a little bit more interest in the woman.†A cotton magnate, an important fish† seems to like her since he is looking from across. The man was going to walk out, but after seeing her one more time he decided to stay to watch her some more. The next man in stanza four is an old man described as a â€Å"crustacean old man† who is sitting near her. As he is there staring at her just like every other man, he tries not to stare anywhere else but her face. He â€Å"might see her charms through the fissures where the eyes should be or else his teeth will parted in a stare† (L.14-16). What the author is saying is that if the man looks below the neck region, his jaw will drop because of his perverted thoughts. A third man known as the â€Å"lean dark mackerel† tries to look as if he does not care too much about the woman. â€Å"The flat-eyed fish sucks on a straw, staring from its repose, laxly.†(L.19, 20) He is still attracted to her since he turned around to look at her, but he seemed calm and cool because he was resting and looking at her in a peaceful manner. In stanza six, they talk about a man who is stepping up and attempts to do what every man wants to do with her. Every man wants to be with her, but everyone is threatened. The man is â€Å"circling and passing near the white attraction.† (L.22) The man is trying to have to get the confidence to ask her out, but he never does. He was to afraid of what would happen so he never had the opportunity. Since the ice cream is now gone, the men don’t seem to be attracted to her anymore. â€Å"The fish swim off on business/ and she sits home alone at the table† (L.26, 27). Douglas is saying that the woman lost her power of seduction and she is no longer the attraction and every man has left since she is not as beautiful anymore. She is a â€Å"white stone/ useless except to a collector, a rich man.† (L. 27, 28) The quote means she is no longer the thing that the men are interested in and the only way she will get someone to be with her is if she becomes a trophy wif e. In the end of the poem, it comes to a sad end. The woman is lonely as the men go on with their busy lives. Throughout the whole poem, she was trying to use the power of seduction, but ended up teasing everyone away. As a reader, it comes to no surprise that she did not get anyone because being a tease is no way to get a man or a woman. Therefore, justice has been served as she ends up alone.

Enabling various

It has brought people closer together by enabling various forms f interpersonal communication, notably e-mail, instant messaging, video conferencing, and social networking. And it has allowed consumers to purchase virtually anything at any time, while providing producers with direct access to a wide range of markets. Furthermore, the Internet Is a bustling industry, spurred by entrepreneurship and supported by a variety of Industries and large enterprises. Online productivity tools and communications advancements provide benefits to almost all enterprises and governments.The Internet has helped governments to broaden their services to citizens and improve their delivery. In a very short period, it has become difficult for most of us to imagine a world without instant and continuous access to the Internet. Series in which we examined the Internet's impact on a group of developing countries that have both the scale and the dynamism to become significant players on the global stage in t he near future (see Online and upcoming: The Internet's impact on aspiring countries, McKinney & Company, January 2012).It also builds on our earlier assessment of the impact of the Internet on the advanced economies and several large developing economies, such as China, Brazil, Russia and India (see McKinney Global Institute, Internet matters: The Net's sweeping impact on growth, Jobs, and prosperity, May 2011). As an ongoing body of work, our view of the Internet's impact on India is evolving. The insights and conclusions presented in this report are refinements of our earlier multi-country work, based on an in-depth assessment of India-specific data and multiple expert interviews in India.As data sources improve and the body of knowledge relating to the Internet expands in India, we look forward to continue to evolve our perspectives. Our research focuses on the way the Internet affects Indian's economy currently, and TTS potential to do so in future. In our attempt to understand the impact of the Internet, we focus on how economic growth and prosperity have been affected; we also seek to discover how individuals, entrepreneurs, enterprises, and public sector entities have been transformed.In addition to assessing the Internet landscape and its impact on the various groups of participants, we examine the potential for India to utilize the particular strengths of its economy to enable businesses and individuals to derive greater benefits from the Internet. We do not offer prescriptive policies, but Ochs on opportunities and possibilities for India to accelerate its efforts to capture the Internet's benefits.This is an independent McKinney & Company report that draws on various sources: research from Muckiness's Technology, Media, and Telecoms Practice; information from academic and public sources; research conducted with Google; and work from the McKinney Global Institute (MGM'), the business and economics research arm of McKinney & Company. Without the cont ributions of the academics and researchers who are cited throughout the report, our effort would not have been possible.To understand the trends in Internet activity in India versus other countries, we relied on several analytical approaches: (1) we constructed macroeconomic analyses for India, taking into account data related to Internet expenditure, Internet usage, the infrastructure, and various other environmental enablers of the Internet; (2) we conducted microanalyses of various Internet ecosystem participants and user groups, using publicly available data and interviews with company chief technology officers (Cots); (3) we surveyed about 550 small and medium-sized enterprises (Seems) inIndia; (4) we utilized data from Muckiness's proprietary Digital Consumer surveys in India in 2010 and 2012; (5) we constructed a forward-looking view on the potential size of the Internet user base in India; and (6) we conducted thought experiments to behavior could shape the Internet landscap e. To test our conclusions, we interviewed industry experts in India and asked academics to review our findings. As a result, we are confident that the findings are directionally robust, despite the challenges of limited data availability.However, there is a clear need to conduct further research ND analysis on the basis of enriched sets of data, given the growing importance of the Internet and its transformational impact. The project was led by Chanced Misbranding, a McKinney principal in Bangor, and Ann. Mammogram, a senior fellow at MGM' in Iambi, along with Noshing Kaka, managing director of McKinney in India, James Monika, a McKinney and MGM' director in San Francisco, Michael Chug, a senior fellow at MGM' in San Francisco and Jacques Bugging, a McKinney director in Brussels.Malcolm Gomes managed the project team of Chums Gain, Million Speaker, and Emmanuel Thomas. We are grateful for the review, challenge and advice provided by our academic advisers for this research: we thank Martin N. Bally, the Bernard L. Schwartz Chair in Economic Policy Development at the Brooking Institution, and Rakes Moan, professor in the Practice of International Economics of Finance, School of Management, Yale University.We are also grateful for the insights of Raja Amanda, Betsy Massively, and Armament Sings at Google. The authors would like to acknowledge Muckiness's researchers who made significant contributions to the fact base: Shirr Guppy from MGM' Economics and Durum Vary from Muckiness research and information network. Finally, we offer special thanks to the industry experts we interviewed during this project.For their perspectives on the evolution of the Internet landscape in India we thank Sunnis Abraham, Director of the Centre for Internet and Society; Raja Katharine, Director and Chief Executive of ‘CRIER; Some Imitate, President of MASCOT; and Sub Ray, President of the Internet & Mobile Association of India. For their insights into the Internet-related inves tments of their enterprises and the prospects for Internet innovation in India, we thank the many Cots and technology company executives we interviewed. All references to specific companies in this report come from public sources.Our aspiration is to provide facts and analyses to better understand some of the most important trends that are shaping the Internet in India. We hope our findings will enrich the dialogue about the ways that businesses, policy makers, and innovators can accelerate Indian's Internet transformation. Principal, McKinney & Company Bangor Senior Fellow, McKinney Global Institute Iambi Managing Director, India, McKinney & Company Director, McKinney & Company, and Director, McKinney Global Institute San Francisco San FranciscoJacques Bugging Director, McKinney & Company Brussels 1 billion Internet users in 30 aspiring countries? half of the global tally of Internet users 120 million Internet users in India: the third largest user base in the world Across seven as piring countries the average number of Internet users for every 100 people is 3410 compared to in India The average number of fixed broadband subscribers for every 100 people across the seven aspiring countries is 7 1 Our illustrative subset of seven of the â€Å"aspiring† countries, I. E. , Argentina, Brazil, China, Malaysia, the Philippines, South Africa, and Vietnam. 1. % average contribution of the Internet to GAP across all aspiring countries, versus in developed countries 3. 4% contribution of the Internet to Indian's GAP, amounting to $30 billion $12 billion average estimated consumer surplus associated with Internet usage across the seven aspiring countries, versus $9 billion Average international bandwidth capacity for every 10,000 people across the seven aspiring 28 Mbps 6 Mbps Contents Executive summary Indian's Internet landscape Economic impact of the Internet 18 Indian's Internet ecosystem 25 Impact on principal user groups 29 A vision for broad-based Internet i nclusionAppendix: Methodology and approaches Bibliography 53 The Internet today connects more than two billion people worldwide. The Internet already has immense impact on the global economy, contributing an estimated $1. 7 trillion, or Just under 3 percent, of global GAP in 2010. 1 Yet half the number of Internet users lives outside the advanced economies, often in countries that are quickly developing, have significant economic potential and are socially and culturally diverse.India has about 120 million people online today and offers a striking example of the Internet's growth potential. India is adopting the Internet at a much more rapid pace than advanced economies and even many developing economies, yet 90 percent of its population is currently not connected. This report assesses the impact of the Internet on Indian's economy, estimating its impact on GAP. Looking beyond that, we measure the Internet's broader impact in terms of consumer surplus and the development of Internet ecosystems.We also look at the ways in which various participants have benefited from the Internet already. We measure Indian's environment for e-commerce and entrepreneurship, and we analyze in detail the impact of the Internet on its small and medium-sized enterprises (Seems). Finally, we assess the potential for the future impact of the Internet and what it would take for India to bring this potential into being.As a basis for comparison, we use a set of 57 middle-income developing nations, and some populous but less-developed nations; these collectively constitute 91 percent of world GAP. Thirty of these countries are what we call â€Å"aspiring countries,† defined as having the scale and dynamism to fuel economic performance in the global economy while driving significant domestic Roth and offering prosperity to their own citizens. These aspiring countries have a collective GAP of $19 trillion, or 30 percent of global GAP.We focus our comparisons with India more closely on an illustrative subset of seven of the aspiring countries: Argentina, Brazil, China, Malaysia, the Philippines, South Africa and Vietnam. Of the set of more than 20 developed countries in our database, we focus our comparisons on five: Germany, South Korea, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Our report offers seven key findings concerning the impact of and outlook for the Internet in India: 1.Indian's base of about 120 million Internet users is currently the third-largest in the world. Though Indian's users spend less time online per capita than users in developed countries, their pattern of online behavior is rapidly converging. The Internet's role in communication, social networking, and informing and influencing Indian's consumers in categories such as apparel, books, financial services, and travel is already comparable with that of developed countries. 2.India is likely to have the second-largest user base in the world, and the largest in arms of incremental growth, with 330 million to 370 million Internet users in 2015. Given current downward trends in the costs of Internet access and mobile devices, India is on the verge of an Internet boom. In an evolution pattern unique to India, users who access the Internet only through a mobile or tablet device will constitute around 75 percent of new users and 55 percent of the aggregate user base in 201 5, leading to increasing demand for content that is optimized for a small screen. . India has the potential to double its economic contribution from the Internet in the ext three years, from 1. 6 percent of GAP at present to 2. 8 to 3. 3 percent by 2015. Despite the large current base of users, the Internet currently contributes a modest 1. 6 percent to Indian's GAP, in line with 1 For a detailed account of the Internet's contribution to GAP in several developed and aspiring countries, see Internet matters: The Net's sweeping impact on growth, Jobs, and prosperity, McKinney Global Institute, May 2011. Most aspiring countries. This could grow to 2. 8 to 3. 3 percent by 201 5 if India achieves its potential for growth in the number of Internet users and Internet genealogy-related consumption and investment over this period, increasing the Internet's contribution to GAP from $30 billion today to nearly $100 billion in 2015. This would make the Internet-related economy larger than the education sector and as large as the health care sector, in terms of share of GAP at present.Currently, Indian's information and communication technology (ACT) exports are the most significant component of the Internet's impact on GAP. But private consumption, 4. The impact of the Internet in India is constrained by current gaps and obstacles in the Internet ecosystem. While India scores well on the availability of human and financial capital, it rates poorly on Internet infrastructure, Internet engagement, the e-commerce platform, the ease of Internet entrepreneurship, and the impact of e-govern ance.On most indicators of the strength of the Internet ecosystem, India ranks in the bottom quartile of our comparison set of 57 countries. 5. Although the Internet ecosystem is becoming more vibrant, the benefits have been relatively concentrated. Indian's Internet start-ups are scaling up through creative adaptations to overcome infrastructural and systemic bottlenecks. Yet, while large enterprises have gained from their early adoption of the Internet, there is scope among individual consumers, Seems and the government sector to significantly increase engagement.Today, Indian's measurable consumer surplus from the Internet is estimated at $9 per user per month, at the low end of the range for aspiring countries ($9 to $26) and well below the range for developed countries ($18 to $28). Even by 201 5, with overall Internet penetration likely to reach 28 percent, rural penetration is likely to be Just 9 percent. 6. India can achieve broad-based Internet impact by aiming for the digi tal inclusion of nearly 40 percent of its population, to reach a user base of 500 million by 2015, rather than the likely target of 330 million to 370 million.Most of the additional 150 million to 160 million users would be individuals and small businesses in semi-urban and rural parts of the country. Extending Internet access to these segments of the population, and promoting the usage of many more online services, would enable India to derive much more of the intended benefits from government programs of inclusive growth in employment, education, health care, nutrition, and financial services. Concerted actions by policy makers and businesses in five areas can help India achieve an inclusive Internet transformation: reduce the cost of Internet access across devices, content and applications; increase access to low-cost, high-speed connectivity in rural and semi-urban India beyond the top cities; promote widespread digital literacy through the introduction of devices and content ta ilored to the local context; devise Internet applications in new areas such as agriculture, health care, education, energy, utilities, and public information; and create a more favorable business environment forInternet entrepreneurs to support rapid innovation. 1. Indian's base of about 120 million Internet users is currently the third-largest in the world, and the pattern of online behavior is rapidly converging with that of users in more developed countries Indian's large economy, with its young and increasingly urbanize consumer base, offers strong growth potential for Internet usage.Weak infrastructure has kept Indian's Internet penetration low; at 10 percent, it is much lower than the average of 40 percent across aspiring countries. Even so, with about 120 million people online in 2011, India is the third-largest Internet user base in the oral. Internet users in India spend 20 to 25 hours online per month, about the same as their counterparts in Latin America, but only a quart er of the amount spent by those in Asia Pacific countries such as China and Malaysia.However, the time spent on the Internet per user in India rose 24 percent from 2010 to 2012; more online transactions and entertainment, grew more rapidly than reading and browsing. The share of Indian digital consumers who use online media for search, awareness, and research to purchase products is already high across multiple categories: in apparel (26 percent), travel (51 percent), books (36 percent), and uncial services (30 percent), the proportions are comparable with those in Germany, Japan and the United States. 2. India is on the verge of an Internet boom with a projected user base of 330 million to 370 million by 201 5, which will be the second largest in the world, and the largest in terms of incremental growth Indian's current Internet user base of about 120 million is likely to nearly treble by 201 5, and will thereby account for approximately 12 percent of the global total (Exhibit El). The projected growth in Indian's Internet users, an additional 230 million or so between 2011 and 2015, is likely to be the sights incremental growth in the world. In recent years, Indian's rate of growth of Internet users has been faster than that of many aspiring countries?for example, Malaysia's Internet user base grew 1. 8 times from 2005 to 2011, and South Africans grew 1. 9 times, while Indian's grew more than 5 times. Indian's Internet revolution is being shaped by telecoms players' strategies to reduce cost of access.Smartened costs are falling rapidly as players achieve scale economies, while the proliferation of G/G services in India is likely to reduce connectivity costs and overcome the challenge of limited fixed-line connections. As a result, nearly 75 percent of new users and more than half of Indian's base of Internet users in 2015 is likely to be mobile-only subscribers who will use Internet-enabled devices. By contrast, mobile-only users are likely to constitute a m ere 10 to 15 percent of the market in Indian's regional counterparts, China and Malaysia.Indian's Internet market is therefore likely to require a unique approach to content and application design. Mobile-based users will demand limited textual content and more audio-visual content because of the small screen size of their devices. Furthermore, it will become essential for entrepreneurs and innovators to make their applications or services compatible for users with a basic mobile device, in order to target those in the rural population who might not be able to afford a sophisticated smartened.